Glycosylation Pathways in Humans and Lower Eukaryotes
After DNA is transcribed and translated into a protein, further post-translational processing involves the attachment of sugar residues, a process known as glycosylation. Different organisms produce different glycosylation enzymes (glycosyltransferases and glycosidases), and have different substrates (nucleotide sugars) available, so that the glycosylation patterns as well as composition of the individual oligosaccharides, even of the same protein, will be different depending on the host system in which the particular protein is being expressed. Bacteria typically do not glycosylate proteins, and if so only in a very unspecific manner (Moens and Vanderleyden, 1997 Arch Microbiol. 168(3):169-175). Lower eukaryotes such as filamentous fungi and yeast add primarily mannose and mannosylphosphate sugars. The resulting glycan is known as a “high-mannose” type glycan or a mannan. Plant cells and insect cells (such as Sf9 cells) glycosylate proteins in yet another way. By contrast, in higher eukaryotes such as humans, the nascent oligosaccharide side chain may be trimmed to remove several mannose residues and elongated with additional sugar residues that typically are not found in the N-glycans of lower eukaryotes. See, e.g., R. K. Bretthauer, et al. Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry, 1999, 30, 193-200; W. Martinet, et al. Biotechnology Letters, 1998, 20, 1171-1177; S. Weikert, et al. Nature Biotechnology, 1999, 17, 1116-1121; M. Malissard, et al. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 2000, 267, 169-173; Jarvis, et al., Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 1998, 9:528-533; and M. Takeuchi, 1 Trends in Glycoscience and Glycotechnology, 1997, 9, S29-S35.
Synthesis of a mammalian-type oligosaccharide structure begins with a set of sequential reactions in the course of which sugar residues are added and removed while the protein moves along the secretory pathway in the host organism. The enzymes which reside along the glycosylation pathway of the host organism or cell determine the resulting glycosylation patterns of secreted proteins. Thus, the resulting glycosylation pattern of proteins expressed in lower eukaryotic host cells differs substantially from the glycosylation pattern of proteins expressed in higher eukaryotes such as humans and other mammals (Bretthauer, 1999). The structure of a typical fungal N-glycan is shown in FIG. 1A.
The early steps of human glycosylation can be divided into at least two different phases: (i) lipid-linked Glc3Man9GlcNAc2 oligosaccharides are assembled by a sequential set of reactions at the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and (ii) the transfer of this oligosaccharide from the lipid anchor dolichyl pyrophosphate onto de novo synthesized protein. The site of the specific transfer is defined by an asparagine (Asn) residue in the sequence Asn-Xaa-Ser/Thr where Xaa can be any amino acid except proline (Gavel, 1990). Further processing by glucosidases and mannosidases occurs in the ER before the nascent glycoprotein is transferred to the early Golgi apparatus, where additional mannose residues are removed by Golgi specific alpha (α)-1,2-mannosidases. Processing continues as the protein proceeds through the Golgi. In the medial Golgi, a number of modifying enzymes, including N-acetylglucosaminyl Transferases (GnTI, GnTII, GnTIII, GnTIV and GnTV), mannosidase II and fucosyltransferases, add and remove specific sugar residues. Finally, in the trans-Golgi, galactosyltranferases (GalT) and sialyltransferases (ST) produce a glycoprotein structure that is released from the Golgi. It is this structure, characterized by bi-, tri- and tetra-antennary structures, containing galactose, fucose, N-acetylglucosamine and a high degree of terminal sialic acid, that gives glycoproteins their human characteristics. The structure of a typical human N-glycan is shown in FIG. 1B.
In nearly all eukaryotes, glycoproteins are derived from a common lipid-linked oligosaccharide precursor Glc3Man9GlcNAc2-dolichol-pyrophosphate. Within the endoplasmic reticulum, synthesis and processing of dolichol pyrophosphate bound oligosaccharides are identical between all known eukaryotes. However, further processing of the core oligosaccharide by fungal cells, e.g., yeast, once it has been transferred to a peptide leaving the ER and entering the Golgi, differs significantly from humans as it moves along the secretory pathway and involves the addition of several mannose sugars.
In yeast, these steps are catalyzed by Golgi residing mannosyltransferases, like Och1p, Mnt1p and Mnn1p, which sequentially add mannose sugars to the core oligosaccharide. The resulting structure is undesirable for the production of human-like proteins and it is thus desirable to reduce or eliminate mannosyltransferase activity. Mutants of S. cerevisiae, deficient in mannosyltransferase activity (for example och1 or mnn9 mutants) have been shown to be non-lethal and display reduced mannose content in the oligosaccharide of yeast glycoproteins. Other oligosaccharide processing enzymes, such as mannosylphosphate transferase, may also have to be eliminated depending on the host's particular endogenous glycosylation pattern.
Sugar Nucleotide Precursors
The N-glycans of animal glycoproteins typically include galactose, fucose, and terminal sialic acid. These sugars are not found on glycoproteins produced in yeast and filamentous fungi. In humans, the full range of nucleotide sugar precursors (e.g. UDP-N-acetylglucosamine, UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine, CMP-N-acetylneuraminic acid, UDP-galactose, GDP-fucose, etc.) are synthesized in the cytosol and transported into the Golgi, where they are attached to the core oligosaccharide by glycosyltransferases. (Sommers and Hirschberg, 1981 J. Cell Biol. 91(2): A406-A406; Sommers and Hirschberg 1982 J. Biol. Chem. 257(18): 811-817; Perez and Hirschberg 1987 Methods in Enzymology 138: 709-715).
Glycosyl transfer reactions typically yield a side product which is a nucleoside diphosphate or monophosphate. While monophosphates can be directly exported in exchange for nucleoside triphosphate sugars by an antiport mechanism, diphosphonucleosides (e.g. GDP) have to be cleaved by phosphatases (e.g. GDPase) to yield nucleoside monophosphates and inorganic phosphate prior to being exported. This reaction is important for efficient glycosylation; for example, GDPase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) has been found to be necessary for mannosylation. However that GDPase has 90% reduced activity toward UDP (Berninsone et al., 1994 J. Biol. Chem. 269(1):207-211). Lower eukaryotes typically lack UDP-specific diphosphatase activity in the Golgi since they do not utilize UDP-sugar precursors for Golgi-based glycoprotein synthesis. Schizosaccharomyces pombe, a yeast found to add galactose residues to cell wall polysaccharides (from UDP-galactose) has been found to have specific UDPase activity, indicating the potential requirement for such an enzyme (Berninsone et al., 1994). UDP is known to be a potent inhibitor of glycosyltransferases and the removal of this glycosylation side product may be important to prevent glycosyltransferase inhibition in the lumen of the Golgi (Khatara et al., 1974). See Berninsone, P., et al. 1995. J. Biol. Chem. 270(24): 14564-14567; Beaudet, L., et al. 1998 Abc Transporters: Biochemical, Cellular, and Molecular Aspects. 292: 397-413.
Sequential Processing of N-Glycans by Compartmentalized Enzyme Activities
Sugar transferases and glycosidases (e.g., mannosidases) line the inner (luminal) surface of the ER and Golgi apparatus and thereby provide a “catalytic” surface that allows for the sequential processing of glycoproteins as they proceed through the ER and Golgi network. The multiple compartments of the cis, medial, and trans Golgi and the trans-Golgi Network (TGN), provide the different localities in which the ordered sequence of glycosylation reactions can take place. As a glycoprotein proceeds from synthesis in the ER to full maturation in the late Golgi or TGN, it is sequentially exposed to different glycosidases, mannosidases and glycosyltransferases such that a specific carbohydrate structure may be synthesized. Much work has been dedicated to revealing the exact mechanism by which these enzymes are retained and anchored to their respective organelle. The evolving picture is complex but evidence suggests that stem region, membrane spanning region and cytoplasmic tail, individually or in concert, direct enzymes to the membrane of individual organelles and thereby localize the associated catalytic domain to that locus (see, e.g., Gleeson, P. A. (1998) Histochem. Cell Biol. 109, 517-532).
In some cases, these specific interactions were found to function across species. For example, the membrane spanning domain of α2,6-ST from rats, an enzyme known to localize in the trans-Golgi of the animal, was shown to also localize a reporter gene (invertase) in the yeast Golgi (Schwientek, 1995). However, the very same membrane spanning domain as part of a full-length α2,6-ST was retained in the ER and not further transported to the Golgi of yeast (Krezdorn, 1994). A full length GalT from humans was not even synthesized in yeast, despite demonstrably high transcription levels. In contrast, the transmembrane region of the same human GalT fused to an invertase reporter was able to direct localization to the yeast Golgi, albeit it at low production levels. Schwientek and co-workers have shown that fusing 28 amino acids of a yeast mannosyltransferase (MNT1), a region containing a cytoplasmic tail, a transmembrane region and eight amino acids of the stem region, to the catalytic domain of human GalT are sufficient for Golgi localization of an active GalT. Other galactosyltransferases appear to rely on interactions with enzymes resident in particular organelles because, after removal of their transmembrane region, they are still able to localize properly.
Improper localization of a glycosylation enzyme may prevent proper functioning of the enzyme in the pathway. For example, Aspergillus nidulans, which has numerous α-1,2-mannosidases (Eades and Hintz, 2000 Gene 255(1):25-34), does not add GlcNAc to Man5GlcNAc2 when transformed with the rabbit GnTI gene, despite a high overall level of GnTI activity (Kalsner et al., 1995). GnTI, although actively expressed, may be incorrectly localized such that the enzyme is not in contact with both of its substrates: UDP-GlcNAc and a productive Man5GlcNAc2 substrate (not all Man5GlcNAc2 structures are productive; see below). Alternatively, the host organism may not provide an adequate level of UDP-GlcNAc in the Golgi or the enzyme may be properly localized but nevertheless inactive in its new environment. In addition, Man5GlcNAc2 structures present in the host cell may differ in structure from Man5GlcNAc2 found in mammals. Maras and coworkers found that about one third of the N-glycans from cellobiohydrolase I (CBHI) obtained from T. reesei can be trimmed to Man5GlcNAc2 by A. saitoi 1,2 mannosidase in vitro. Fewer than 1% of those N-glycans, however, could serve as a productive substrate for GnTI. The mere presence of Man5GlcNAc2, therefore, does not assure that further processing to Man5GlcNAc2 can be achieved. It is formation of a productive, GnTI-reactive Man5GlcNAc2 structure that is required. Although Man5GlcNAc2 could be produced in the cell (about 27 mol %), only a small fraction could be converted to Man5GlcNAc2 (less than about 5%, see Chiba WO 01/14522).
To date, there is no reliable way of predicting whether a particular heterologously expressed glycosyltransferase or mannosidase in a lower eukaryote will be (1), sufficiently translated (2), catalytically active or (3) located to the proper organelle within the secretory pathway. Because all three of these are necessary to affect glycosylation patterns in lower eukaryotes, a systematic scheme to achieve the desired catalytic function and proper retention of enzymes in the absence of predictive tools, which are currently not available, would be desirable.
Production of Therapeutic Glycoproteins
A significant number of proteins isolated from humans or animals are post-translationally modified, with glycosylation being one of the most significant modifications. An estimated 70% of all therapeutic proteins are glycosylated and thus currently rely on a production system (i.e., host cell) that is able to glycosylate in a manner similar to humans. Several studies have shown that glycosylation plays an important role in determining the (1) immunogenicity, (2) pharmacokinetic properties, (3) trafficking, and (4) efficacy of therapeutic proteins. It is thus not surprising that substantial efforts by the pharmaceutical industry have been directed at developing processes to obtain glycoproteins that are as “humanoid” or “human-like” as possible. To date, most glycoproteins are made in a mammalian host system. This may involve the genetic engineering of such mammalian cells to enhance the degree of sialylation (i.e., terminal addition of sialic acid) of proteins expressed by the cells, which is known to improve pharmacokinetic properties of such proteins. Alternatively, one may improve the degree of sialylation by in vitro addition of such sugars using known glycosyltransferases and their respective nucleotide sugars (e.g., 2,3-sialyltransferase and CMP-sialic acid).
While most higher eukaryotes carry out glycosylation reactions that are similar to those found in humans, recombinant human proteins expressed in the above mentioned host systems invariably differ from their “natural” human counterpart (Raju, 2000). Extensive development work has thus been directed at finding ways to improve the “human character” of proteins made in these expression systems. This includes the optimization of fermentation conditions and the genetic modification of protein expression hosts by introducing genes encoding enzymes involved in the formation of human-like glycoforms (Werner, 1998; Weikert, 1999; Andersen, 1994; Yang, 2000). Inherent problems associated with all mammalian expression systems have not been solved.
Fermentation processes based on mammalian cell culture (e.g., CHO, murine, or human cells), for example, tend to be very slow (fermentation times in excess of one week are not uncommon), often yield low product titers, require expensive nutrients and cofactors (e.g., bovine fetal serum), are limited by programmed cell death (apoptosis), and often do not enable expression of particular therapeutically valuable proteins. More importantly, mammalian cells are susceptible to viruses that have the potential to be human pathogens and stringent quality controls are required to assure product safety. This is of particular concern as many such processes require the addition of complex and temperature sensitive media components that are derived from animals (e.g., bovine calf serum), which may carry agents pathogenic to humans such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) prions or viruses. Moreover, the production of therapeutic compounds is preferably carried out in a well-controlled sterile environment. An animal farm, no matter how cleanly kept, does not constitute such an environment, thus constituting an additional problem in the use of transgenic animals for manufacturing high volume therapeutic proteins.
Most, if not all, currently produced therapeutic glycoproteins are therefore expressed in mammalian cells and much effort has been directed at improving (i.e., “humanizing”) the glycosylation pattern of these recombinant proteins. Changes in medium composition as well as the co-expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in human glycosylation have been successfully employed (see, for example, Weikert, 1999).
Glycoprotein Production Using Eukaryotic Microorganisms
The lack of a suitable mammalian expression system is a significant obstacle to the low-cost and safe production of recombinant human glycoproteins for therapeutic applications. It would be desirable to produce recombinant proteins similar to their mammalian, e.g., human, counterparts in lower eukaryotes (fungi and yeast). Production of glycoproteins via the fermentation of microorganisms would offer numerous advantages over existing systems. For example, fermentation-based processes may offer (a) rapid production of high concentrations of protein; (b) the ability to use sterile, well-controlled production conditions; (c) the ability to use simple, chemically defined (and protein-free) growth media; (d) ease of genetic manipulation; (e) the absence of contaminating human or animal pathogens such as viruses; (f) the ability to express a wide variety of proteins, including those poorly expressed in cell culture owing to toxicity etc.; and (g) ease of protein recovery (e.g. via secretion into the medium). In addition, fermentation facilities for yeast and fungi are generally far less costly to construct than cell culture facilities. Although the core oligosaccharide structure transferred to a protein in the endoplasmic reticulum is basically identical in mammals and lower eukaryotes, substantial differences have been found in the subsequent processing reactions which occur in the Golgi apparatus of fungi and mammals. In fact, even amongst different lower eukaryotes there exist a great variety of glycosylation structures. This has historically prevented the use of lower eukaryotes as hosts for the production of recombinant human glycoproteins despite otherwise notable advantages over mammalian expression systems.
Therapeutic glycoproteins produced in a microorganism host such as yeast utilizing the endogenous host glycosylation pathway differ structurally from those produced in mammalian cells and typically show greatly reduced therapeutic efficacy. Such glycoproteins are typically immunogenic in humans and show a reduced half-life (and thus bioactivity) in vivo after administration (Takeuchi, 1997). Specific receptors in humans and animals (i.e., macrophage mannose receptors) can recognize terminal mannose residues and promote the rapid clearance of the foreign glycoprotein from the bloodstream. Additional adverse effects may include changes in protein folding, solubility, susceptibility to proteases, trafficking, transport, compartmentalization, secretion, recognition by other proteins or factors, antigenicity, or allergenicity.
Yeast and filamentous fungi have both been successfully used for the production of recombinant proteins, both intracellular and secreted (Cereghino, J. L. and J. M. Cregg 2000 FEMS Microbiology Reviews 24(1): 45-66; Harkki, A., et al. 1989 Bio-Technology 7(6): 596; Berka, R. M., et al. 1992 Abstr. Papers Amer. Chem. Soc. 203: 121-BIOT; Svetina, M., et al. 2000 J. Biotechnol. 76(2-3): 245-251). Various yeasts, such as K. lactis, Pichia pastoris, Pichia methanolica, and Hansenula polymorpha, have played particularly important roles as eukaryotic expression systems because they are able to grow to high cell densities and secrete large quantities of recombinant protein. Likewise, filamentous fungi, such as Aspergillus niger, Fusarium sp, Neurospora crassa and others, have been used to efficiently produce glycoproteins at the industrial scale. However, as noted above, glycoproteins expressed in any of these eukaryotic microorganisms differ substantially in N-glycan structure from those in animals. This has prevented the use of yeast or filamentous fungi as hosts for the production of many therapeutic glycoproteins.
Although glycosylation in yeast and fungi is very different than in humans, some common elements are shared. The first step, the transfer of the core oligosaccharide structure to the nascent protein, is highly conserved in all eukaryotes including yeast, fungi, plants and humans (compare FIGS. 1A and 1B). Subsequent processing of the core oligosaccharide, however, differs significantly in yeast and involves the addition of several mannose sugars. This step is catalyzed by mannosyltransferases residing in the Golgi (e.g. OCH1, MNT1, MNN1, etc.), which sequentially add mannose sugars to the core oligosaccharide. The resulting structure is undesirable for the production of humanoid proteins and it is thus desirable to reduce or eliminate mannosyltransferase activity. Mutants of S. cerevisiae deficient in mannosyltransferase activity (e.g. och1 or mnn9 mutants) have shown to be non-lethal and display a reduced mannose content in the oligosaccharide of yeast glycoproteins. Other oligosaccharide processing enzymes, such as mannosylphosphate transferase, may also have to be eliminated depending on the host's particular endogenous glycosylation pattern. After reducing undesired endogenous glycosylation reactions, the formation of complex N-glycans has to be engineered into the host system. This requires the stable expression of several enzymes and sugar-nucleotide transporters. Moreover, one has to localize these enzymes so that a sequential processing of the maturing glycosylation structure is ensured.
Several efforts have been made to modify the glycosylation pathways of eukaryotic microorganisms to provide glycoproteins more suitable for use as mammalian therapeutic agents. For example, several glycosyltransferases have been separately cloned and expressed in S. cerevisiae (GalT, GnTI), Aspergillus nidulans (GnTI) and other fungi (Yoshida et al., 1999, Kalsner et al., 1995 Glycoconj. J. 12(3):360-370, Schwientek et al., 1995). However, N-glycans resembling those made in human cells were not obtained.
Yeasts produce a variety of mannosyltransferases (e.g., 1,3-mannosyltransferases such as MNN1 in S. cerevisiae; Graham and Emr, 1991 J. Cell. Biol. 114(2):207-218), 1,2-mannosyltransferases (e.g. KTR/KRE family from S. cerevisiae), 1,6-mannosyltransferases (e.g., OCH1 from S. cerevisiae), mannosylphosphate transferases and their regulators (e.g., MNN4 and MNN6 from S. cerevisiae) and additional enzymes that are involved in endogenous glycosylation reactions. Many of these genes have been deleted individually giving rise to viable organisms having altered glycosylation profiles. Examples are shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1Examples of yeast strains having altered mannosylationStrainN-glycan (wild type)MutationN-glycan (mutant)ReferenceS. pombeMan>9GlcNAc2OCH1Man8GlcNAc2Yoko-o et al. ,2001 FEBS Lett.489(1): 75-80S. cerevisiaeMan>9GlcNAc2OCH1/Man8GlcNAc2Nakanishi-ShindoMNN1et al, . 1993 J. Biol.Chem. 268(35): 26338-26345S. cerevisiaeMan>9GlcNAc2OCH1/Man8GlcNAc2Chiba et al. , 1998MNN1/J. Biol. Chem.MNN4273, 26298-26304P. pastorisHyperglycosylatedOCH1 NotWelfide, Japanese(completehyperglycosylatedApplicationdeletion)Publication No. 8-336387P. pastorisMan>8GlcNAc2OCH1 Man>8GlcNAc2Contreras et al.(disruption)WO 02/00856 A2
Japanese Patent Application Publication No. 8-336387 discloses the deletion of an OCH1 homolog in Pichia pastoris. In S. cerevisiae, OCH1 encodes a 1,6-mannosyltransferase, which adds a mannose to the glycan structure Man8GlcNAc2 to yield Man9GlcNAc2. The Man9GlcNAc2 structure, which contains three 1,6 mannose residues, is then a substrate for further 1,2-, 1,6-, and 1,3-mannosyltransferases in vivo, leading to the hypermannosylated glycoproteins that are characteristic for S. cerevisiae and which typically may have 30-40 mannose residues per N-glycan. Because the Och1p initiates the transfer of 1,6 mannose to the Man8GlcNAc2 core, it is often referred to as the “initiating 1,6 mannosyltransferase” to distinguish it from other 1,6 mannosyltransferases acting later in the Golgi. In an och1 mnn1 mnn4 mutant strain of S. cerevisiae, proteins glycosylated with Man8GlcNAc2 accumulate and hypermannosylation does not occur. However, Man8GlcNAc2 is not a substrate for mammalian glycosyltransferases, such as human UDP-GlcNAc transferase I, and accordingly, the use of that mutant strain, in itself, is not useful for producing mammalian-like proteins, i.e., with complex or hybrid glycosylation patterns.
Although Japanese Patent Application Publication No. 8-336387 discloses methods to obtain an och1 mutant of P. pastoris displaying a reduced mannosylation phenotype, it provides no data on whether the initiating 1,6 mannosyltransferase activity presumed to be encoded by OCH1 is reduced or eliminated. It is well-established in the field of fungal genetics that homologs of genes often do not play the same role in their respective host organism. For example, the Neurospora rca-1 gene complements an Aspergillus flbD sporulation mutant but has no identifiable role in Neurospora sporulation. Shen, W. C. et al., Genetics 1998; 148(3):1031-41. More recently, Contreras (WO 02/00856 A2) shows that, in an och1 mutant of P. pastoris, at least 50% of the cell wall glycans cannot be trimmed to Man5GlcNAc2 with a Trichoderma reesei α-1,2-mannosidase (see FIG. 11 of WO 02/00856 A2). As the wild-type displays a very similar glycosylation pattern (FIG. 10, Panel 2 of WO 02/00856 A2), it appears that the OCH1 gene of P. pastoris may not encode the initiating 1,6-mannosyltransferase activity and is thus different from its genetic homolog in S. cerevisiae. Thus, to date, there is no evidence that initiating α-1,6-mannosyltransferase activity is eliminated in och1 mutants of P. pastoris, which further supports the notion that the glycosylation pathways of S. cerevisiae and P. pastoris are significantly different.
Martinet et al. (Biotechnol. Lett. 1998, 20(12), 1171-1177) reported the expression of α-1,2-mannosidase from T reesei in P. pastoris. Some mannose trimming from the N-glycans of a model protein was observed. However, the model protein had no N-glycans with the structure Man5GlcNAc2, which would be necessary as an intermediate for the generation of complex N-glycans. Accordingly, that system is not useful for producing proteins with complex or hybrid glycosylation patterns.
Similarly, Chiba et al. (1998) expressed α-1,2-mannosidase from Aspergillus saitoi in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A signal peptide sequence (His-Asp-Glu-Leu) (SEQ ID NO:5) was engineered into the exogenous mannosidase to promote its retention in the endoplasmic reticulum. In addition, the yeast host was a mutant lacking enzyme activities associated with hypermannosylation of proteins: 1,6-mannosyltransferase (och1); 1,3-mannosyltransferase (mnn1); and a regulator of mannosylphosphate transferase (mnn4). The N-glycans of the triple mutant host consisted primarily of the structure Man8GlcNAc2, rather than the high mannose forms found in wild-type S. cerevisiae. In the presence of the engineered mannosidase, the N-glycans of a model protein (carboxypeptidase Y) were trimmed to give a mixture consisting of 27 mole % Man5GlcNAc2, 22 mole % Man6GlcNAc2, 22 mole % Man7GlcNAc2, and 29 mole % Man8GlcNAc2. Trimming of cell wall glycoproteins was less efficient, with only 10 mole % of the N-glycans having the desired Man5GlcNAc2 structure.
Even if all the Man5GlcNAc2 glycans were the correct Man5GlcNAc2 form that can be converted to GlcNAcMan5GlcNAc2 by GnTI, the above system would not be efficient for the production of proteins having human-like glycosylation patterns. If several glycosylation sites are present in a desired protein, the probability (P) of obtaining such a protein in a correct form follows the relationship P=(F)n, where n equals the number of glycosylation sites, and F equals the fraction of desired glycoforms. A glycoprotein with three glycosylation sites would have a 0.1% chance of providing the appropriate precursors for complex and hybrid N-glycan processing on all of its glycosylation sites. Thus, using the system of Chiba to make a glycoprotein having a single N-glycosylation site, at least 73 mole % would have an incorrect structure. For a glycoprotein having two or three N-glycosylation sites, at least 93 or 98 mole % would have an incorrect structure, respectively. Such low efficiencies of conversion are unsatisfactory for the production of therapeutic agents, particularly as the separation of proteins having different glycoforms is typically costly and difficult.
Chiba et al. (WO 01/14522) have shown high levels of Man5GlcNAc2 structures on recombinant fibroblast growth factor (FGF), a secreted soluble glycoprotein produced in S. cerevisiae. It is not clear, however, that the detected Man5GlcNAc2 was produced inside the host cell (i.e. in vivo) because the α-1,2 mannosidase was targeted by fusion with an HDEL (SEQ ID NO:5) localization tag, a mechanism, which is known to be leaky (Pelham H. R. (1998) EMBO J. 7, 913-918). It is more likely that FGF was secreted into the medium, where it was then processed by α-1,2 mannosidase which had escaped the HDEL (SEQ ID NO:5) retrieval mechanism and leaked into the medium. As mentioned above, an intracellular protein (CPY), expressed in the same strain, contained mostly glycans (more than 73%) that were Man6GlcNAc2 and larger. The majority of the Man5GlcNAc2 structures on FGF are, thus, likely to have been produced ex vivo. It is further unclear whether the Man5GlcNAc2 structures that were produced were productive substrates for GnTI.
As the above work demonstrates, one can trim Man8GlcNAc2 structures to a Man5GlcNAc2 isomer in S. cerevisiae, although high efficiency trimming greater than 50% in vivo has yet to be determined, by engineering a fungal mannosidase from A. saitoi into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The shortcomings of this approach are two-fold: (1) it is not clear whether the Man5GlcNAc2 structures formed are in fact formed in vivo (rather than having been secreted and further modified by mannosidases outside the cell); and (2) it is not clear whether any Man5GlcNAc2 structures formed, if in fact formed in vivo, are the correct isoform to be a productive substrate for subsequent N-glycan modification by GlcNAc transferase I (Maras et al., 1997, Eur. J. Biochem. 249, 701-707).
With the objective of providing a more human-like glycoprotein derived from a fungal host, U.S. Pat. No. 5,834,251 discloses a method for producing a hybrid glycoprotein derived from Trichoderma reseei. A hybrid N-glycan has only mannose residues on the Manα1-6 arm of the core mannose structure and one or two complex antennae on the Manα1-3 arm. While this structure has utility, the method has the disadvantage that numerous enzymatic steps must be performed in vitro, which is costly and time-consuming. Isolated enzymes are expensive to prepare and need costly substrates (e.g. UDP-GlcNAc). The method also does not allow for the production of complex glycans on a desired protein.
Intracellular Mannosidase Activity Involved in N-Glycan Trimming
Alpha-1,2-mannosidase activity is required for the trimming of Man8GlcNAc2 to form Man5GlcNAc2, which is a major intermediate for complex N-glycan formation in mammals. Previous work has shown that truncated murine, fungal and human α-1,2-mannosidase can be expressed in the methylotropic yeast P. pastoris and display Man8GlcNAc2 to Man5GlcNAc2 trimming activity (Lal et al., Glycobiology 1998 October; 8(10):981-95; Tremblay et al., Glycobiology 1998 June; 8(6):585-95, Callewaert et al., 2001). However, to date, no reports exist that show the high level in vivo trimming of Man8GlcNAc2 to Man5GlcNAc2 on a secreted glycoprotein from P. pastoris. 
While it is useful to engineer strains that are able to produce Man5GlcNAc2 as the primary N-glycan structure, any attempt to further modify these high mannose precursor structures to more closely resemble human glycans requires additional in vivo or in vitro steps. Methods to further humanize glycans from fungal and yeast sources in vitro are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,834,251 (supra). As discussed above, however, if Man5GlcNAc2 is to be further humanized in vivo, one has to ensure that the generated Man5GlcNAc2 structures are, in fact, generated intracellularly and not the product of mannosidase activity in the medium. Complex N-glycan formation in yeast or fungi will require high levels of Man5GlcNAc2 to be generated within the cell because only intracellular Man5GlcNAc2 glycans can be further processed to hybrid and complex N-glycans in vivo. In addition, one has to demonstrate that the majority of Man5GlcNAc2 structures generated are in fact a substrate for GnTI and thus allow the formation of hybrid and complex N-glycans.
Moreover, the mere presence of an α-1,2-mannosidase in the cell does not, by itself, ensure proper intracellular trimming of Man8GlcNAc2 to Man5GlcNAc2. (See, e.g., Contreras et al. WO 02/00856 A2, in which an HDEL (SEQ ID NO:5) tagged mannosidase of T. reesei is localized primarily in the ER and co-expressed with an influenza haemagglutinin (HA) reporter protein on which virtually no Man5GlcNAc2 could be detected. See also Chiba et al., 1998 (supra), in which a chimeric α-1,2-mannosidase/Och1p transmembrane domain fusion localized in the ER, early Golgi and cytosol of S. cerevisiae, had no mannosidase trimming activity). Accordingly, mere localization of a mannosidase in the ER or Golgi is insufficient to ensure activity of the respective enzyme in that targeted organelle. (See also, Martinet et al. (1998), supra, showing that α-1,2-mannosidase from T. reesei, while localizing intracellularly, increased rather than decreased the extent of mannosylation). To date, there is no report that demonstrates the intracellular localization of an active heterologous α-1,2-mannosidase in either yeast or fungi using a transmembrane localization sequence.
Accordingly, the need exists for methods to produce glycoproteins characterized by a high intracellular Man5GlcNAc2 content which can be further processed into human-like glycoprotein structures in non-human eukaryotic host cells, and particularly in yeast and filamentous fungi.